Setting and hardening of hydraulic cements Essay Example for Free

Setting and hardening of hydraulic cements Essay In August 2004, Adriatic IV was on location over the Temsah gas production platform, off Port Said, Egypt in the Mediterranean. During the drilling of natural gas well by rig, a gas blowout occurred during the drilling operation. Due to this blowout, the whole Petrobel platform was burnet out. This platform was owned jointly by BP, Italys ENI and Egypts General Petroleum Corporation was damaged beyond repair and Egypt’s petroleum minister ordered its destruction. An engineering firm Tacon designed the platform. Tecon developed the basic structural design along with offshore structure SASP, of the platform jacket for Petrobel Egypt. Tecon was responsible to perform the foundation design and all naval and installation analysis. Tacon also developed all A. F. C. structural drawings. [Tecon] The blowout on the offshore of the platform was the consequence of annular flow after cementing using spooled wellheads. Following part of case study shows why blowout occurred with all analysis. TEMSAH: Temsah is a gas production platform owned jointly by BP, Italy’s ENI and Egypt’s General Petroleum Corporation located in the off port said, Mediterranean Sea. On 10th August 2004, the Adriatic IV was working as usual on the Temsah platform. The rig was drilling natural gas well when a blowout occurred during the drilling operations. Reports and various other sources stated that there was an explosion followed by fire, which was initially contained on the jack-up. [JWC] The fire then spread to the Petrobel-run platform where it continued to rage for over a week before being brought under control. There were more than 150 workers on the jack-up as well as on the platform. All the workers on the jack-up and platform were evacuated with no casualties, due in part to the prior recommendation that production activities be ceased as a precautionary measure. The firefighters battled for almost a week to control the fire burning on a rig pumping natural gas out of the Mediterranean Sea as reported by Egypt’s semiofficial news agency. Oil Ministry officials, speaking on condition of anonymity, told the Middle East News Agency (MENA) that workers were drilling holes in a leaking well to release gases to contain the fire, while firefighters are dousing the platform with seawater. [JWC] It took almost a week to control over the fire. According to the, Global Santa Fe, Adriatic IV was sunk and not salvageable. The platform, owned jointly by BP, Italys ENI and Egypts General Petroleum Corporation was damaged beyond repair and Egypt’s petroleum minister ordered its destruction. Almost one year after this accident, the Temsah was fully repaired and production at Temsah field started in a full-fledged manner. It was back on stream at full production rates. 2. Cement types and cementing structure The above blowout caused due to the cementing structure and method. Discussed here is the cementing process that probably caused the blowout. After running 9 5/8 Casing to 2754 meters, performing a cement job, waiting on cement for 14 hours, and setting the casing slips, the well started to flow from the 9 5/8 by 13 3/8 annulus, while installing the primary packing (sealing element). The flow consisted of salthingyer and gas. The wells on the Temsah NW platform were shut in and the gas lines to and from the platform were depressurized. Thus the wells on the W. Akhen platform were shut in, as the gas, production lines go through the Temsah NW platform. On-essential personnel were evacuated from the rig. Nipped up the BOP and space out riser. Shut in pressures were 1480 psi. Shortly thereafter the flange between the wellhead B section and the riser below the BOPs started leaking salthingyer and gas. Since the initial incident, the flow had continued through the leaking flange and increased. Remedial efforts to date had not been successful in containing or controlling this flow. When cement casing is done in the well, Blowout Preventers are usually picked up to set the slips on the casing to hold it in place. Due to this, well is open to the world. Cement is counted on to hold any gas down hole, but if the cement is lighter than the bottom whole pressure, the well will come in. The way to avoid this is to wait longer on the cement to set and monitor any gas migration to surface. This process was not done, which would have probably prevented the blowout on the platform. Facilities for placing cement: Wellheads are nothing but the end connection to concentric well casings, which are cemented into the ground. The critical purpose of this wellhead is to provide a base onto which safety equipments (blow-out preventers) is installed throughout the drilling phase of a well and to which production flow control equipment is attached, before a well can safely put into the production. To confine the downhole pressure to the smallest inner casing and eventually the production tubing, wellheads contain annular seals, which serve to isolate the last casing into the high pressure resistant wellhead housing body. [UNEP] Type of cement: The type of cement used in the well was Hydraulic cement. Hydraulic cements are materials that set and harden after being mixed with water, because of the chemical reactions with the mixing water. After hardening, the Hydraulic cements retain strength and stability even under water. The key requirement for this strength and stability is that the hydrates formed on immediate reaction with water be essentially insoluble in water. Most construction cements today are hydraulic, and most of these are based on Portland cement, which is made primarily from limestone, certain clay minerals, and gypsum in a high temperature process that drives off carbon dioxide and chemically combines the primary ingredients into new compounds. Setting and hardening of hydraulic cements is caused by the formation of water-containing compounds, which are formed as the result of reactions between cement components and water. The reaction and the reaction products are referred to as hydration and hydrates or hydrate phases, respectively. As a result of the immediate start of the reactions, a stiffening can be observed which is initially slight but which increases with time. The point at which the stiffening reaches a certain level is referred to as the start of setting. Further consolidation is called setting, after which the phase of hardening begins. The compressive strength of the material then grows steadily, over a period that ranges from a few days in the case of ultra-rapid-hardening cements to several years in the case of ordinary cements. Non-hydraulic cements include such materials as (non-hydraulic) lime and gypsum plasters, which must be kept dry in order to gain strength, and oxychloride cements, which have liquid components. Lime mortars, for example, set only by drying out, and gain strength only very slowly by absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to re-form calcium carbonate through carbonatation. [Wikipedia] 3. Time scale The time scale for the cement specifies the amount of time in years the cement will provide the strength to the structure. Time scale of cement structure truly determines the quality of the cement structure. Time scale for the cement structures must be longest it can be. The time scale for the Egypt Temsah was more than hundreds of years. It was a building structure into the Mediterranean Sea with very strong and rigid foundation. Mediterranean sea, Port Said, well of Temsah was built with concrete materials. Wellheads were also made with the same kind of cement materials. [UNEP] Cement Success: Cement success is nothing but the successful completion of a cement structure in the various testing methods. Cement is assumed to be successful when any benchmark for the structure is completed. For-example in Egypt Temsah the platform was destroyed after many decades. This total age or decade specifies the cement success.

Authentication Mechanism for Fast Handover PMIPv6 Networks

Authentication Mechanism for Fast Handover PMIPv6 Networks N.S.Nandhinee S.Kayalvizhi Abstract—The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) proposed a host-based mobility management protocol, called Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) protocol for mobile nodes (MNs) to maintain continuous service when they move among different foreign networks. However, Mobile IPv6 does not provide good service for real-time applications because it causes longer disruptions when the handoff takes place. Recently, the IETF NETLMM working group developed a network-based localized mobility management protocol called Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) to reduce the handoff latency of MIPv6. PMIPv6 still suffers from packet loss problem and signaling overhead. This paper performs a Bicasting scheme to reduce packet loss, use the piggyback technique to reduce the signaling overhead, also provides Authentication mechanism for protecting valid user from attacks in PMIPv6 networks. Keywords—Authentication, bicasting, handover, piggyback, Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) 1. Introduction As wireless technologies have grown, all the people want to use wireless networks while moving from one place to another. At the same time Mobile MIPv6 was developed by the internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to support the Mobile Node. Even after introducing the Mobile IPv6 Mobile Nodes (MNs) did not receive any data packets when it performs the handover that involves , IP address configuration, movement detection and location update latencies. To reduce the handover latency, Fast Handover has been developed. Fast handover performs the movement detection and IP address whenever the Mobile Nodes move from one location to another. Therefore Fast handover protocol reduces the handover latency. However , MIPv6 cannot satisfy all the requirements of real time applications such as video streaming service and voice over internet protocol (VoIP) service due to its high handover latency. To address this problem, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) NETLMM working group developed a network based localized mobility management protocol called Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) to reduce the handoff latency of MIPv6.Moreover, PMIPv6 provides the IP with the mobility to support MNs without requiring its participation in any mobility-related signaling. Although PMIPv6 reduces lots of handoff latency compared with MIPv6, it still suffers from packet loss, signaling overhead and inefficient authentication procedure problems during handoff. This is because PMIPv6 does not use any buffer mechanism during the handoff procedure and performs the authentication and registration phases separately. Therefore this paper used a bicasting scheme for packet loss and piggybacking technique for signaling overhead. 2. Related works 2.1. survey on fast handover Chaung and Lee [2] proposed handoff schemes for PMIPv6 networks perform the authentication and registration phases separately, resulting in longer handoff latency. A. Pre-Handoff procedure The movements of an MN is detected using the MAG and it performs mobility-related signaling with the LMA in place of the MN. The pre-handoff phase starts only when the MN is going to leave the range of the serving MAG (i.e., MAG1). First, MAG1 sends a handoff initial (HI) message to the target MAG(i.e., MN-ID) and the address of the target MAG. Then , MAG2 sends back a handoff acknowledgement (HACK) message to MAG1, and then a bi-directional tunnel is built between MAG1 and MAG2. After the bi-directional tunnel is built , the buffer of MAG2 prepares to buffer. B. Fast Handoff procedure When the MN moves out of the transmission range of the MAG1, the MAG1 immediately starts sending the MN’S packets to MAG2 at the same time it buffers the packets to prevent from packet loss. After that MAG2 can start the authentication phase immediately. Now, MAG2 sends the AAA request which includes the profile of Mobile Node (i.e., MN-ID) to authenticate the MN and simultaneously sends the PBU message which piggybacks DeReg PBU message to refresh the binding cache entry of LMA. That is , the target MAG (i.e., MAG2) performs the registration phase on behalf of the Deregistration phase of previous MAG (i.e., MAG1).MAG1 stops the service and MAG2 takes the position of MAG2. Moreover, the authentication and registration phases are simultaneously performed so the executing time of these phases are overlapped. On receipt of the PBU message, the LMA sends a PBA message, which includes the HNP of the MN, deletes the old binding cache entry, establishes a new binding cache entry, and sets up a bi-directional tunnel between the LMA and new MAG (i.e., MAG2). Afterward through the new path the LMA transmits the packet to MAG2 and MAG2 buffers these packets for the MN. At the same time, the AAA server starts to authenticate. The MN sends the AAA response to MAG2. MAG2 also immediately sends an RA message to the MN when it detects the MN’s attachment. After receiving the RA message, the MN checks the RA message for finding where the MN locates in. The MN retains the original address if the MN moves in the same LMD. Otherwise, the MN configures the global IPv6 address on its interface from the HNP. Finally, the MN downloads the buffered packets from MAG2. Kim et al [4] The ERP exchange is not necessarily a full EAP method between the EAP peer and the EAP authenticator. It uses MSK sent from EAP server. In this paper, the EAP peer is the MN, the EAP authenticator is a Access Pointer (AP), EAP server is a AAA server and the LMA includes the AAA server. A. EAP authentication in PMIPv6 The MN sends the EAP-Request/Identity to previous AP (p-AP) and receives EAP Response/Identity from the EAP authentication. After the AP performs the EAP method exchange using AAA protocol, it performs the EAP method exchange with the MN. In the case of successful authentication, a MSK is sent by the AAA server to the AP. TSK is made using the MSK after when the MSK is received. TSK is shared with the MN and the TSK is used for per-packet access enforcement by the MN. B. Fast Handover scheme with ERP exchange in PMIPv6 In Proxy MIPv6, whenever the MN moves from its attachment AP to a new attachment AP within the Access Router, it delivers the MSK and performs the re-authentication process. However, the MN performs the Full EAP Method when the MN moves from one attachment MAG network to another new MAG network. In Fast Handover of PMIPv6, the MN performs the Full EAP Method. During Fast Handover period the full EAP method is delayed. The ERP Exchange scheme is used in Fast Handover of PMIPv6 to reduce the full EAP delay. In PMIPv6, Fast Handover schemes are under the propounded phase. Therefore we select the best Scheme of the Fast Handover schemes after the MN performs the Full EAP Method, MSK is received from EAP server and uses the MSK. When the movement of the MN is detected by p-AP, it sends a HO initiate message which includes the MN Identifier (MN ID), new-AP ID and the MSK to the p-MAG. The p-MAG sends a Fast PBU message to the LMA which also receives the HO initiate message. Note that the F ast PBU message includes the information of the HO initiate message. Once the LMA sends back the Fast PBA to the p-MAG it establishes a binding between the HNP which is assigned to the MN and its new PCoA. A Reverse PBU message is sent to the n-MAG by the LMA. The Reverse PBU message consists of the MN ID, HNP of the MN used in the p-MAG, n-AP ID, and the MSK sent from the EAP server. The RA message consists of the HNP, and the MSK which is sent by the n-MAG. MN does not perform a new EAP Method and AAA (EAP Method) scheme when it performs fast handover. Therefore the MSK used in the n-MAG network can also be used in the p-MAG network and the MN is not necessary to complete EAP Method and AAA (EAP Method) between the AAA server and AP. Ryu et al [6] PFMIPv6 to reduce the handover latency occurred in PMIPv6 . PFMIPv6 has two mode: one is the predictive mode and the other is the reactive mode. The solution for handover is described in the following steps : First: The MN reports the identifications of its own (MN ID) and the access point (New AP ID) to which the Mobile Node is most likely to move and also detects that a handover is immediate. The NMAG receives the HI from PMAG which is sent by it. The HI message must include the MN ID and should include the MN-HNP, the MN-ID and the address of the LMA that is currently serving the MN Second: A bi-directional tunnel is built between the PMAG and NMAG and the packets decided for the MN are forwarded from the PMAG to the NMAG over this tunnel. The packets may be buffered at the NMAG after the decapsulation process. If the connection between the N-AN and NMAG has already been established, then those packets may be forwarded towards the N-AN. Third: The MN establishes a connection (e.g., radio channel) with the N-AN, which in turn initiates the establishment of the connection between the N-AN and NMAG if it has not been established already. The NMAG starts to forward packets destined for the MN via the N-AN. The uplink packets from the MN are sent to the NMAG and the NMAG forwards them to the PMAG. The PMAG then sends the packets to the LMA that is currently serving the MN. Final: The NMAG sends the PBU message to the LMA, in which address is provided in HI message from the PMAG to NMAG. Ryu et al [5] Mobile IPv6 needs client functionality in the IPv6 stack of a mobile node (MN). Exchange of signaling messages between the MN and a home agent (HA) enables the creation and maintenance of binding between the MN’s home address and its care-of address. Mobility as specified in Mobile IPv6 requires the IP host to send IP mobility management signaling messages to the HA, which is located in the network. MIPv6 is a approach of host-based mobility to solve the IP mobility challenge. However, it takes a very long time to process handover and there is much packet loss during handover, since there are many signaling messages through wireless link which occurs longer delay during handover process. Network-based mobility is another approach to solve the IP mobility challenge. By extending Mobile IPv6 signaling messages and reusing the HA it is possible to support mobility for IPv6 nodes without host involvement. This approach to support mobility does not require the Mobile Node to be involved in the exchange of signaling messages between itself and the Home Agent (HA). A Mobile Access Gateway (MAG) does the mobility management on behalf of the MN attached to the network and also performs the signaling with the HA . This protocol is known as Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) in Network-based Localized Mobility Management (NETLMM) working group of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Since the proxy mobility agent on behalf of the Mobile Node performs handover process,PMIPv6 can reduce handover latency. That is, there are some signaling message via wireless link. Heavy packet loss occurs during handover in PMIPv6, although PMIPv6 reduces handover latency.This paper propose a Packet- Lossless PMIPv6 (PL-PMIPv6) with authentication to reduce the packet loss problem in PMIPv6. The similar kind of scheme was studied to reduce packet loss and handover latency in Mobile IPv6, such as fast handovers for MIPv6 (FMIPv6) . In PL-PMIPv6, a previous MAG (pMAG) register s to a Local Mobility Anchor (LMA) on behalf of a new MAG (nMAG) during layer 2 handoff. Then, during handover after registration nMAG buffers. Compared to MIPv6 and PMIPv6, PL-MIPv6 can reduce more packet loss. To receive the MN’s profile securely we use Also, we use Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA) infrastructure to authenticate the MN and to receive MN’s profiles securely. We show the performance of PL-PMIPv6 through the comparison of packet loss during handover of MIPv6, PMIPv6 and PLPMIPv6. Authentication with Packet-Lossless PMIPv6 (PL-PMIPv6), to reduce packet loss in PMIPv6. The order of signaling flow in PMIPv6 is followed by PL-PMIPv6 and reduces packet loss. Once the pMAG is aware of the MN’s detachment, it sends the DeReg PBU message to the LMA in PMIPv6. When pMAG sends the DeReg PBU message, nMAG’s PBU message is included in DeReg PBU message in PL-PMIPv6. That is, the pMAG registers on behalf of the nMAG in advance to reduce handover latency. As a result, the tunnel between the nMAG and the LMA is built in advance. Also, the nMAG begins to buffer packets to the MN after it receives the PBA message. After layer 2 handoff, the MN sends the RS message and receives the RA message including the MN’s home network prefix. 3. APPLICATIONS 1) Selective IP Traffic Offload Support with Proxy Mobile IPv6 2) Network-based Mobility Management in a local domain (Single Access Technology Domain) 3) Inter-technology handoffs across access technology domains (Ex: LTE to WLAN, eHRPD to LTE, WiMAX to LTE) 4) Access Aggregation replacing L2TP, Static GRE, CAPWAP based architectures, for 3G/4G integration and mobility 4. ABBREVIATIONS 5. CONCLUSION Fast handovers are transferring of ongoing calls from one channel to another without interruption. Here , Fast Handover analysis reduces the latency in sending the packets from one node to another. In this paper techniques like piggybacking is used to reduce the signaling overhead , bicasting scheme reduces the packet loss by storing all the packets in a buffer and whenever the packet is lost ,the packets are retransmitted from the buffer. Previous papers used only ID for authentication process, this paper used a password authentication mechanism. The result analysis showed that these schemes provide a better solution than existing schemes. 6. REFERENCES Chowdhury K., Koodli R and Yokota H., (2010) ‘Fast Handovers for Proxy Mobile IPv6’, IETF Draft, draft-yokota-mipshop-pfmipv6-13 (work in progress). Chuang M.-C. and Lee J.-F., (2011) ‘FH-PMIPv6: A fast handoff scheme in proxy mobile IPv6 networks’, in Proc. IEEE CECNET, pp. 1297–1300. Chuang M.-C. and Lee J.-F, (2011) ‘A lightweight mutual authentication mechanism for network mobility in IEEE 802.16e wireless networks’, Comput. Netw., vol. 55, no. 16, pp. 3796–3809. Chung T.-M., Kim S.-D., and Lee J.-H., (2009) ‘Secure fast handover scheme of proxy mobile IPv6’, in Proc. IEEE Int. Joint Conf. INC IMS IDC NCM, pp. 555–558. Kim B., Kim G-Y, Mun Y. and Ryu s., (2008) ‘A scheme to reduce packet loss during PMIPv6 handover considering authentication’, in Proc. IEEE Int.Conf. Comput. Sci. Its Applicat., pp. 47-51. Kim M., Mun Y. and Ryu S., (2009) ‘Enhanced fast handovers for proxy mobile IPv6’ , in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Comput. Sci. Its Applicat. (ICCSA), pp.39-43. Zhang H. and Zhou H., (2008) ‘An authentication protocol for Proxy Mobile IPv6’ ,in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Mobile Ad-Hoc Sensor Network, pp. 129-136.

Global Warming Essay -- Climate Change, Greenhouse Gases

Global Warming    Even before Homo erectus first stood up on his hind legs, humans have had an enormous influence over the environment and atmosphere. They have used land, oceans, and other natural resources to help further their expansion and growth. Unfortunately, while the human race flourished, the atmosphere and environment did not. Humans released toxins into the air with their large-scale fires and killed many species to extinction. However, global warming is one of the largest and most current dilemmas the Earth is facing. Over the past century, the temperature of the Earth’s surface has risen 1 ° C and in the past fifty years, humans have been the primary cause of the warming of our planet. One of the major confusions in environmental issues today is the concept of the â€Å"greenhouse effect†. People identify this term in a very negative fashion when in fact the greenhouse effect is what keeps Earth’s temperature livable for organisms such as humans. Energy from the sun heats up Earth’s surface and in turn the Earth radiates some of that heat back into space. The purpose of the atmosphere is to trap some of the â€Å"greenhouse gases† and energy in order to keep temperatures similar to what they are today as well as protect from extreme temperatures. However, complications arise when the concentration of the greenhouse gases increase. Before the Industrial revolution, human activities did not have such a drastic effect on the atmosphere. Yet, as the population of humans on Earth grew, more gases began to be emitted into the atmosphere where they accumulated and remained. One of the most detrimental gases to the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, is accumulating at an alarmingly fast rate. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxi... ...her living creatures. Educating the public about the causes and effects of global warming is a step that many countries, states, and cities have taken. One local example is the â€Å"Walk! Philadelphia† campaign which encourages people to walk or use public transportation to reduce the use of cars. Currently, international and government agencies are thinking of ways to monitor and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases released into the air. I am optimistic that our government and governments from all over the world are working hard to overcome the causes and effects of global warming. While any large-scale change will be gradual, there is no doubt in my mind that we will fix the atmospheric problems to the best of our ability. Source Cited Environmental Protection Agency’s Global Warming website at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/index.html

Comparing Tolstoy’s novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich and the Russian Sta

Comparing Tolstoy’s novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich and the Russian State In Leo Tolstoy’s novel The Death of Ivan Ilyich, the title character’s life changes in several important ways during the course of the story. First, his relationships with the people in his life change. Secondly, he engages in different â€Å"forms of diversion† as his life goes through different stages. Thirdly, his attitude towards wealth and possessions changes near the end of his life. In addition, we also see a gradual realization and acceptance of death. One could draw interesting parallels between the progression of Ivan Ilyich’s character and the Russian state and leadership in the latter part of the Imperial period. The changes in Ivan’s relationships with other people are seen best with his friends and family. Through most of the story, we see that he chooses friends based on social standing. He even applies this to his family, as illustrated near the beginning. His younger brother, having only obtained an appointment in the Railway Division, is labeled a failure by his family and avoided at all costs. Ivan Ilyich’s relationship with his wife is also of particular interest. He seems fairly happy while a newlywed, but becomes quite annoyed with his wife for creating â€Å"distasteful and ill-mannered scenes† (Tolstoy 56; ch. 2) around the time of her pregnancy. At first he tries to ignore her by carrying on with his former social life, but eventually finds that his work is the only excuse that can get him away from her. He goes on avoiding his wife with varying success until the onset of his illness, being confined more and more to his home. During this last st age of his life, he purposely starts arguments with his family, ... ...was unable to control it any longer. The Duma which he had created instantiated a new provisional government and Nicholas finally abdicated the throne. As has been demonstrated, character changes in Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Ilyich find parallels in Russian power specifically through its rulers’ foreign and domestic policies. Though never expressly implied, one can assume that the author, having been quite politically involved, considered such things while writing his novella. We must not put biting social and political satire past a man who, among other things, was involved in the mass emigration of oppressed Russian Jews to the United States and Canada (Riasanovsky 397). Works Cited Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. A History of Russia. 6th ed. New York: Oxford, 2000. Tolstoy, Leo. The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Bantam Classic ed. New York: Bantam, 1981.

Direct and Indirect Representation :: essays research papers

Direct and Indirect Representation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Living in a democratic society, we as Americans have the right to vote on just about all aspects of our lives. The votes that we cast either have a direct or an indirect representation of our beliefs. In cases such as city and statewide laws, our beliefs are directly represented; in all national and organizational matters our votes have an indirect impact. The decisions are made by elected officials who we vote into office to represent our beliefs. One example of this indirect representation can be found in any citywide school board where the elected members make decisions on everything ranging from teacher employment to class curriculum. It is debatable whether, on situations as sensitive as class curriculum, we should be directly involved in such decisions or have them made for us by our elected officials. As we will find, however, class curriculum is something that must continue to be an indirect representation of the public’s beliefs, rather than the di rect result of a democratic vote. The people we have voted onto the school board were elected because they have the education and experience to make the decisions that the public is not qualified to make. They try, to the best of their abilities, to represent us with their decisions, but no matter what there will always be people who are not satisfied. In some instances the school board must make a decision which the majority of people will not agree with, but nonetheless will benefit our children. Our representatives have done the research and the public has not, which is why the public should not make judgement calls on the importance and relevance of certain materials and subjects within our school systems. An example of what happens when the public is allowed to decide can be found in the case of evolution vs. creationism. Some states have, in the past, outlawed the teaching of evolution because the public didn’t agree with it, even though almost all scientists had accepted it. The children in school at th at time were deprived of important information. There is no reason why a scientifically recognized subject should be banned from schools simply because the public doesn’t â€Å"agree† with it. Our society is obligated to keep our citizens informed. A direct vote on class curriculum only perpetuates the older generation’s perspective, as their children grow up to take their place.

Kent state Nutrition programme

Honors equivalents shall satisfy the Kent Core. None of the courses on the Kent Core list may be taken with a pass/fail grade. Visit www. Kent. Deed/catalog/Kent-core for course list. Diversity Course Requirement Students must complete a two-course diversity requirement, consisting of one with a domestic (U. S. ) focus and one with a global focus. One course must come from the Kent Core.The second course may be taken as a second Kent Core, within a major or minor, or as a general elective; or, with dean's approval, by completing one semester of study in another country. Visit www. Kent. Deed/catalog/diversity for course list. Writing-Intensive Course Requirement Students must complete a one-course writing-intensive requirement in their major and earn minimum C (2. 00) grade. Visit www. Kent. Deed/catalog/wick for course list.Experiential Learning Requirement To provide students with direct engagement in learning experiences that promote academic relevance, meaning and an understandin g of real-world issues, students must complete this requirement at Kent State, either as a for-credit course or as a non-credit, non-course experience approved by the appropriate faculty member. Visit www. Kent. Deed/catalog/leer for course list. Upper-Division Requirement Students must complete a minimum 39 upper-division (numbered 30000 to 49999) credit hours of coursework. Programs in the College of Arts and Sciences require a minimum of 42 hours of upper-division coursework.

Formal And Informal Assessment And Evaluation Education Essay

Appraisal and rating has become critical issues particularly in the field of learning and larning ; it requires alert consideration by every instruction practician in any educational establishment. This is besides the country where many instructors sink into the pool of confusion. But it has its cardinal map, which is to roll up information on the accomplishment of every single pupil and judge their mundane advancement. In other words, it serve critical function in the procedure of effectual instruction and acquisition. Therefore, this essay will explicate my apprehension of appraisal and rating from the positions of development, formal, informal, particular demands, and criterions in brief. However, to make this, we foremost need to specify appraisal and rating. The word appraisal is derived from the Latin word ‘assidere ‘ significance ‘to sit beside ‘ . It is obvious that simple tone of this phrase is comforting, and it suggests common assurance and apprehension. So, it indirectly tells that being of positive association between appraisal and the procedure of instruction and acquisition in schools is necessary. By and big, appraisal is a procedure of roll uping information relation to some identified purposes and aims involved with pupils ‘ advancement and accomplishment in the procedure of instruction and acquisition. More specifically, schoolroom appraisal refers to the procedure of assemblage, entering, construing, utilizing and pass oning information about their advancement and accomplishment during the development of cognition, constructs, accomplishments and attitudes. Harmonizing to Lloyd-Jones and Bray ( 1986 ) appraisal is referred to the procedure in which certain quality of a pupil ‘s instruction is measured, by the instructor, an tester or the pupil. It is means to mensurate worthiness of pupils ‘ public presentation. Assessment, hence, involves much more than proving. It is an on-going procedure that encompasses many formal and informal activities intended to analyze and better instruction and acquisition in all countries of the course of study. On the other manus, rating is more or less defined as the procedure of judging comparative virtue, value, or worthiness of educational plans, or techniques by utilizing realistic information generated through appraisal. It helps in updating the nature and grade of acquisition ; plays polar function in curricular determination devising ; and it favour better links between acquisition, and the purposes and aims of learning. Furthermore, it creates strong bond between larning and the environments in which larning takes topographic point. Therefore, in educational scene, appraisal and rating seeks grounds that the acquisition activities designed for pupils are effectual.Appraisal and Evaluation from the position of developmentWhy do we measure and measure? This is the first inquiry that knocks in my head whenever I look assessment and rating from an angle of development. Generally, instructors plays critical function in developmental appraisal and rating of pupils ‘ acquisition and plans for many grounds: First, appraisal and rating aid instructors and pupil matter decision makers to heighten their apprehension of the demands of a persistently changing pupil population. In add-on, it will assist in placing developmental holds in pupils and to develop schemes for intercession. For that, I would prefer to utilize the construct of incorporate theoretical account of kid development. It is because the theoretical account covers up all developmental countries such as sensory, behavioral, linguistic communication, motor, perceptual, societal cognitive and emotional accomplishments. So it can besides be used to better holistic development of pupils as a pupil, ego, and valuable citizen of the state as it reflects their personality every bit good as their grade of accomplishment in the field of acquisition. Second, appraisal is besides meant to develop efficient educational institutional programs and policies to run into pupils ‘ developmental demands and acquisition manners. They are important for progressing the quality and easy handiness of plans and services. Third, we can non avoid its greatest part in course of study development. Through appraisal and rating, we will be able to assist course of study developers for make up one's minding how we might better classs and programmes. At the same clip, as a instructor we can lend in making alteration on course of study, class stuffs, learning methodological analysiss, etc. It is because assessment consequences can specially supply a powerful rational for procuring scaffold for course of study alterations, development and reappraisal.Formal and Informal Assessment and EvaluationA formal appraisal is besides sometimes known as summational appraisal. And it is by and large assessed in the signifier of quiz, trial, or paper and is graded based on how good pupil is able to execute. A summational appraisal is usually carried out at the terminal of unit or faculty. Furthermore, formal appraisals are categorized into criterion-referenced trials and norm-referenced trials. Criterion-referencing is assessment based on certain standard or rule, and norm-referencing is graded appraisal based on the comparings of scholars ‘ accomplishment against one another from clip to clip. I prefer more of standard citing method than norm-referencing because it can be used to judge pupils ‘ accomplishment and advancement on a series of cardinal standards set based on moderately expected acquisition results and aims. Whereas, norm-referencing is based on the hypothesis, that a more or less similar scope of human public presentation can be anticipated for any pupil group. On the other manus, Informal appraisal is referred as formative trial, and it is a uninterrupted procedure of appraisal and rating. Feedback plays critical function here as it allows both scholars and instructors to measure acquisition and topographic point out the countries for betterment. But which one could be the best signifier of appraisal, formal or informal? In my sentiment, the usage of informal appraisals is best for the overall acquisition. It facilitate instructors to assess pupils through a scope of classroom-based activities, place pupils failing so and at that place and get down work for the betterment, instead than waiting at the last minute like informal appraisal.Appraisal and Evaluation for particular demands pupilsStudents ‘ holding jobs such as: motor, lingual, cognitive, behavioral, organisational, address and physical disablements are normally referred as particular needs pupils, and it besides includes talented pupils. They should non be left out without normal instruction. Particular agreements or particular demands adjustments should be offered to them in order to prosecute their academic ends and accomplish a higher degree of personal autonomy. Similarly they besides need to be evaluated and identified their strengths, failings and give guiding rules to do effectual advancement in achieving their academic ends. Other than instructors and equals, pupils ‘ household should affect in it. So, I feel that, by constructing an confederation with their parents ; obtaining pupils ‘ developmental history and current household experience ; and discoursing issues with them would assist greatly for turn toing challenges in steering particular needs pupils to win like other normal pupils. Furthermore, rating will be holistic and addresses all facets of operation. For that we should non bury to take pupils ‘ single acquisition manners into history as all pupils do non hold same learning capableness and ways. Sometimes pupils with particular demands are integrated in regular schoolrooms because the chief thought of appraisal and rating in this field itself is to see whether a pupil is able to accommodate, do advancement and met aims in normal category like normal pupils. Assessment indicates whether the pupil learned the stuffs intended and what are some of the drawbacks countries to be improved. So schools and teacher must give all pupils an equal chance to instruction. Infect, they should supply counteractive aid to particular needs pupils. Never the less, we as a instructor, in order to choose instruction plan and activities suited for our pupils, we must carefully measure our options and see the particular needs of our handicapped pupils. Standards based Assessment and Evaluation Here, it includes two types of educational criterions, a content criterion and a public presentation criterion. A content criterion defines the cognition, constructs, and accomplishments get at each class degree, while public presentation criterion province the degree of public presentation that is considered acceptable alining to the benchmark set by the instructors. Standards-based appraisal and rating is meant to place pupils with different gait and capablenesss in acquisition, so that we can plan schemes to assist them and do all of them achieve and maestro to the degree that they are required to retain certain benchmark in acquisition. Understanding ‘Standardized Test ‘ and its features is necessary when we discuss about appraisal and rating from the position of criterion as it is one of the instrument required in standard appraisal and rating procedure. Range of cognition and apprehension in specific topic is being assessed through standardised testing on pupils. And it is a snapshot in clip where appraisals are administered and scored in the same manner for all pupils. For illustration, multiple-choice inquiries and written responses to be answered within a given clip frame are illustrations of standard trial. That means pupils are non allowed to utilize outer resources or mentions in order to finish the trial. Their public presentation on these trials decides whether they will be promoted or non from one class to the following. And this is what about every school territory now administers it. However, it is of import for us non to acquire confused of Standardized trials with the criterions motion, which approve definite grade-level content and public presentation criterions in chief topic sphere. Frequently, regulated unvarying trials are non associated with province and territory content criterions, and these causes perceptibly lose of connexion between what is being taught and what is being tested. So as a instructor we have to treat our learning harmonizing to the course of study. The standard rating will enable other school betterment program and undertakings, and to convey progress alterations in course of study and teaching method, and incorporation of new appraisals. So standardised appraisal and rating is uniformly regulated trial which it refers to when every pupil at a peculiar class degree has to undergo the same trial with same inquiry, at same clip frame in same twelvemonth throughout the state. In the nutshell, we would happen that the descriptions given in above paragraphs are all positions from different positions constructed by speculating the both particular needs pupils and normal pupil as an active in structuring their ain acquisition in the context of societal interaction ; function of educational establishments and instructors in set uping the kid ‘s phase of development in any facet of acquisition, and that information collected through assorted appraisal and rating methods will so be used to ‘scaffold ‘ the following acquisition and course of study development.